Monday, February 7, 2011

MONEY SAVING TIPS

                                                  MONEY SAVING TIPS


                                                 57 MONEY SAVING TIPS

People are always trying to save money, especially with today’s economy.  No matter
 what your reason for saving, through this e-book, you will discover ways never
 considered.

  The price of everything has gone up, requiring people to be more conscientious
 about money.  The problem is that by the time the mortgage, car, utilities, and credit
 cards are paid, there is little money to put aside.  Saving money is not that hard,
 just a matter of learning all the different options and being creative.

  In addition to the obvious of putting money into a retirement fund or savings
 account, there are hundreds of ways to save money.  Although some ways of saving
may not seem like much, once you add them up at the end of the year, you will see
 how substantial the savings really are.  Keep in mind that saving is more than a
 single lump sum of money put aside.  Saving is something found in your everyday
 life by the way you live and the choices you make.

  Rome was not built in a day and neither will your bank account be.  Each penny
 saved is one more penny than before.  If you have the ability to save big, that is
 great.  However, most people are not in that position, which is why this e-book will
show you how little savings can add up quickly.
 
Be encouraged that it is never too late to start saving, regardless of your age.  Set your mind that now is the time to start building your future.

1.  Holiday Gift Giving

 This tip is especially helpful for large families.  Although it is fun buying for and receiving from everyone, it can be very expensive.  Make an agreement with your family that you will continue to buy for the children but that the adults will go with a name exchange.  This way the children are not disappointed and you can spend a little more on one or two people rather than spreading your money thin.  For the members that you did not pick to exchange with, bake a loaf of their favorite homemade bread or cookies.
 
2. Clearance

 Always head straight for the clearance rack where you can find amazing bargains.  Sometimes you may have to dig a little to find the right item but the savings will be well-worth your time.  Most clearance racks offer variety, current trends, and great value.  For example, Bed, Bath & Beyond has a clearance section where you can find all kinds of wonderful household items for a fraction of the original cost.

  
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3.  Thrift / Surplus Stores

 Unfortunately, thrift and surplus stores have been given a bad rap.  Many of
 these stores are filled with hundreds of top quality items.  Name brand
merchandise is easy to find but just like clearance racks, it takes some time to
 find.  Find a thrift or surplus store close to where you live and then plan
 spending some time to find those outstanding bargains.  One woman in Kansas
 City, Missouri located such a store about 20 minutes from her home.  After
 shopping through every isle over the period of two hours, she walked out of the
 store with eight huge garbage bags filled to the brim with designer clothes for
 her and her children, many with the original tags still attached.  She even found
 a couple of Liz Claiborne suits for herself at $5.99 each and a Dooney & Burke
purse normally valued at $225 for $19.95.  Her children had an entire season of
school clothes and best of all, she paid less than $200.
 
4.  Wrapping Paper and Bows

 Create your own wrapping paper, which is not only unique, but also fun.  Use
 plain brown grocery bags and craft-like paints to make your design.  After
 wrapping the gift, let your creative juices flow.  For example, using black and
 yellow craft paint, create a miniature road.  Then dipping toy truck tires into
 red paint roll them along the paper making tire tracks.  You can then draw free
 hand a stop sign, yield sign, or stop light.  Next, using a hot glue gun, glue a
 couple of the miniature trucks to the paper.  This is perfect for a young boy.
 He will be just as thrilled with the wrapping as the actual gift.  For a girl, you
can simply create miniature bows from existing fabric or lace and glue them on
 brown paper then free hand draw colorful flowers.  Just use your creativity and
 look around for items you already have on hand to use.
 
5. Reuse

When you shop, look for items that can be reused.  Rechargeable batteries are
 a perfect example.  Even though the initial purchase may be more than non-
rechargeable batteries, there is a definite savings over a long period.  Another
option would be to purchase a nice artificial Christmas tree.  Many of the
 current artificial trees look amazingly real and with the right lights and
 ornaments, you can change the look from year to year.
 
6. Landscaping

If you are considering creating a nice flower garden area, shopping for plants
 even on sale, can be expensive.  Before you go out and start spending, look
 around to see if you have other plants that can be split from your existing
flowers.  Additionally, if you have a good relationship with any of your
 neighbors, you might ask them if they have any plants you could use as a
starter.  Another great idea is the next time you are in the market to buy a
 lawnmower, purchase one that mulches leaves.  This way, rather than buy
 mulch for your flowerbeds every year, you can simply use the mulch you make.

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7. Budget

Everyone should create a budget.  If you are not sure how or just not good with
 money, many businesses such as H&R Block, offer free financial consulting to
 help you put a budget together.  Knowing where you are spending your money
 is by far the best way to save.  In most cases, people have no idea where their
money is really going and once they see it on paper, not only are they surprised
 but eager to change their spending habits.
      
8. Plan

Planning is a great way to save.  Before you go to the grocery store, make a list
and stick with it.  If considering a vacation, plan everything.  Heading out with
 no set direction will certainly lead you to impulsive spending.
 
9.  Buy in Bulk

It is true that warehouse shopping can save a lot of money.  Even if you have a
small family, you can always split large quantities.  The price of items in bulk is
 generally a great bargain.  If you are single, you might go in with friends or
 family on bulk items.
 
10. Allowance

Do not forget to give yourself an allowance for things you enjoy.  Even if on a
 tight budget, buy something that you enjoy, which could be as simple as buying
 a new shirt or grabbing lunch at your favorite cafĂ©.  If you do not allow yourself
this small “splurge”, you could find yourself in the same position as if dieting.
 Total deprivation leads to overindulgence.
 
11.  What Matters to You

Make a list of the 10 most important things in your life.  Next to each item, rank them
 in order of importance using numbers 1 through 10.  The purpose of
 this exercise is to help you see the things you consider the most and least
 important and to provide you with a visual of why you need to save.  Some
examples of things that a person might put on their list include new home, car,
 special trip, artwork, starting a business, or pay off debts.
 
12. Setting Goals

Break your goals into short-term, intermediate-term, and long-term.  Being
 able to see your accomplishments is a great motivator for you to work hard at
 saving.  If you set a short-term goal of saving for tickets to the symphony and
 reach that goal, you will be encouraged to keep saving for the intermediate and
 long-term goals.

  
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13. Be Realistic

 When it comes to saving money, make sure the goals you set for yourself are
 realistic.  If you earn $50,000 a year, saving $20,000 would be nice but it is
 very unrealistic.  Make your goals attainable or you will never save.
 
14. Flexibility

Once you have set your goal for saving, realize that things can and will change.
 The secret is learning ways to be flexible.  If you normally save $150 a month,
 when something unexpected happens, you may only be able to save $50 that
 month.  This is fine as long as you focus on getting back on track.
 
15. Insurance

Shop around for insurance and work with a good agent that can provide
 information on discounts such as good student, multi-car discount, etc.  Some
 people think the price of insurance is the same from one company to the next.
 However, prices can vary dramatically and to ensure you get the best deal, you
 need to consider all your options.
 
16. Coupons

Okay, maybe you used to laugh as you watched people pull out their coupons
at stores but the truth is that using coupons can save you hundreds of dollars
 every year.  Coupons can be used at grocery stores, retail chains, any store
 where the item is sold.  Some stores offer double coupon days, which is an
 extra bonus.  On average, you could easily save from 5% to 15% on a bill for
 $100 simply by presenting a coupon.  Coupons are not just for food items and
 by scouring your local newspaper you can find coupons for all sorts of
 merchandise.
   
17. Credit Cards
 

Use credit cards only for emergency.  Although convenient, credit cards are
 dangerous and damaging.  In addition, if you have a credit card that has a
 $1,000 balance and you pay only the minimum payment each month, it will
 take you between 20 and 30 years to pay off that $1,000 balance since the
 majority of money is going strictly toward the interest and not the principal
 amount.
 
18. Mortgage Payment

Paying one additional mortgage payment each year, whether in a lump sum or
 monthly increments, can lower a 30-year loan down to 18 years.  If you pay
 more than one extra payment, the number of years will decrease even more.
 Since this additional payment will be applied only to the principal and not the
 interest, you end up saving thousands and thousands of dollars once the home
 is paid off.

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19.  Credit Card Interest

If you have credit cards and your credit is in good standing, call your credit
card company, and ask for your interest rate to be lowered.  It is truly that
 simple.  Unfortunately, most people do not even realize this is an option so they
 never make the call.  Just tell the representative that you want a better rate on
 your credit card and they will take care of your request.
 
20. Patience

Be patient when it comes to saving.  This means that you need to accept that it
 will take time to save and good planning.  Be patient and remember that just
 because you want something, do not rush to buy just to satisfy your urge.
 Instead, wait for sales in order to get the best price, which in turn will save you
money.
      
21. Financial Consulting

Many financial companies and even churches offer outstanding classes on how
 to manage money.  While some of these programs are free, others may have a
 nominal fee of around $35 to attend but the money is well spent.  Another
great option is consumer-counseling services.  This is a great option for people
 in over their head with debt.  The counselors will work directly with your
creditors to lower your balances, interest rate, and establish workable
 payments that you can afford.
 
22.  Break old Habits

Take time to learn the various things that “trigger” your spending.  When you
 are depressed, lonely, sad, anxious, excited, whatever it may be, do you spend
more?  Once you can identify these triggers then you can learn how to control
 them.  As an example, if you were just laid off from your job, although money
is tight, you may have an overwhelming “need” to spend money.  Perhaps you
 notice that when you are bored, you head for the shops.  Knowing what affects
 you will help you to discipline yourself to find other ways of comfort.
 
23. Avoid Temptations
If you have a particular weakness, stay away from it.  If you love to gamble,
stay out of the casinos.  If you have a weakness for shoes, drive past your
 favorite shoe store.  While avoiding temptation is hard, it is also necessary in
 order to save money.  When you want to give into your temptation, this is the
time to use your “allowance”.
 
24.  The Right Time to Shop

Studies have proven that when shopping while hungry, depressed, tired, and
stressed, you buy more.  Before you head to the grocery store, eat something.
 If you are upset or feeling a little blue, calm yourself down or wait until you feel

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better before you head out to shop.  As funny as it may sound, having a clear mind is important when it comes to shopping and spending money.
   
25.  Make your Own Gifts

If you ask people if they prefer a store bought or handmade gift, the majority
 would choose the latter.  Handmade gifts are individualized and come from the
heart.  When you have a birthday, anniversary, baby shower, wedding, or
Christmas gift to give, make the gift.  For Christmas, you could make a
 beautiful ornament or door wreath, for a baby shower you could purchase an
 inexpensive bib pattern and make special bibs, or for a wedding, you could
 create a wonderful album of photos showing the couples dating life.  Other
 great options include making homemade hot chocolate, soaps, candles, or
 lotions and placing them in inexpensive glass containers or baskets purchased
 at a thrift shop.  If you use a mason jar, add foam and fabric under the lid for
 added color, use a label to write the contents and a message of endearment,
and wrap a nice piece of ribbon around the ridge.  The options are endless, so
 get creative.
 
26. Barter System

Gather friends, family, neighbors, and co-workers and set up a bartering
 system.  Offer babysitting to one family in exchange for them mowing your
lawn or offer to clean someone’s house in exchange for a week of car-pooling
 your child to school.  You would be amazed at the opportunities and the money
 that can be saved using a bartering system.
 
27. Matinee

Do you love the movies but hate the prices?  Switch your nighttime show to the
 late afternoon or early evening matinee.  The price is about 50% less and when
 taking an entire family, that is a nice savings.  Pop your own popcorn, put in a
plastic bag, and place in a large purse and make or buy your own candy,
 leaving only drinks to buy.  Food at the theater is outrageously priced.  The
 next time that you head to the movies, hit the matinee, stuff those jellybeans
 and licorice sticks in your purse, and enjoy the savings.  Also, check for movie
 tickets online, which can be discounted.
      
28. Comparison Shop

Comparison-shopping can make a big difference in the price you pay.  You
 might be looking at a barbecue grill at one place for $350.00 and by making
 two more stops, find the exact grill or one comparable for $300.  In addition,
 consider the price of items assembled versus un assembled.  For example, you
might find the barbecue grill un assembled for $250.  A couple of hours of “fun”

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assembling the grill is certainly worth a $100 saving.
 
29.  Stop Competing with the Jones’


You do not have to compete with anyone.  Be proud of what you have and who
 you are.  If you can only afford an inexpensive sofa from a thrift store, find a
 nice throw, make a few pillows, and be proud and thankful.  Competitiveness is
 a part of nature and to a degree, healthy.  However, when competition creates
a buying war to see who can have the “best” when they have no business
 buying at all, then it becomes damaging.  Stick to what you can afford
 regardless of what anyone else has or pressure you might be feeling.

30.  Sales Clerk Compliments

Sales clerks are often paid on commission.  Therefore, when you walk into a
 store and try on an expensive suit, you can be guaranteed you will hear several
 times over how wonderful you look, how great that suit fits you, etc.  Because
 this is how the clerks make their money, they will say whatever it takes to
 make the sale.  You probably do look good but do not allow yourself to be
 pressured into buying something beyond your means.  Know what you want,
the price range you can work with, and stick with your own rules, not theirs.
 
31.  Incentives – Reward Plan

To help you and your family spend more wisely, set up a system where rewards
 are given when the rules set forth are followed.  For example, if a family
 decision was made to start making lunch and brown bagging it to work and
school instead of paying each day, the incentive might be that if this is followed
 strictly for one month, the entire family can spend a Saturday at the Zoo or
favorite theme park.
 
32. Dollar Stores

Many years ago, dollar stores offered only off brand products or poorly made
 merchandise.  However, that has completely changed.  Now you can walk into a
 dollar store and find the same name brand laundry soap, cleaning supplies,
 clothing, school supplies, everything for a fraction of the cost.  Where a store
 name brand bottle of laundry detergent might cost $6.50 at a grocery store,
 you can find the identical product and size at the dollar store for $2.50.  Check
 out your local dollar store and enjoy the mountains of savings.
 
33.  Don’t Give up the Good Stuff

A misconception is that while trying to save money you have to deal with sub-
par merchandise, which is untrue.  If you love fresh breads and pastries, visit a
 bakery thrift store.  For your fresh fruits and vegetables, visit your local
farmer’s market.  Try eBay or other auction sites to buy top quality
 merchandise for a huge discount.  Watch for neighborhood garage sales or
 estate sales and auctions to find items you need.  Just because you are looking
for bargains as a way of saving money does not mean you have to skimp on
 quality.

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34. Utilities

Set up some rules in your home such as turning lights off when leaving the
room, having only a parent adjust the air or heat, leaving the doors or windows
 open when letting either cold or hot air into the house.  Utilities are expensive
 and a great money saver is to monitor how they are used in your home.
 Another great idea is the investment of buying an energy-efficient hot water
heater.  If you cannot afford one, lower the setting so you are not heating
 water so hot.  The hotter the setting, the more energy used.
      
35.  Check the Garbage

One woman had her teenage daughter clean her room.  The daughter proudly
 did just that, filling two huge trash bags of things she no longer wanted.  Out of
curiosity, the mother peeked into one of the bags to see what was being thrown
away.  In shock, she found a new tube of suntan lotion, two perfectly good
 sweaters, makeup, lotion, a picture frame, hair curlers, all good things.  The
 daughter did not realize that just because the items were of no interest to her,
 they might be to someone else.  After talking to her daughter, the mom turned
around and listed the items on eBay, making a $35 profit on her daughter’s
 “junk.”
 
36. Written Plan

When a person goes into business, they create a Business Plan, which becomes
 the blueprint of their business.  The same should apply if you are trying to save
money.  Create a master plan that the entire family can get involved with and
learn their role.  When you start to spend too much, go back and look at your
plan to see where you are messing up and how you can fix it.
 
37. Attitude

Good money management is an acquired skill.  As you go forward with the
 process of saving money, you need to have a good, positive attitude, which is
 often what will keep you and your family heading in the right direction.  If you
 think you cannot save, then you probably will not.  Be determined and stay
 positive about saving.
 
38. Unsecured Creditors

Make a list of all your unsecured debts along with creditor contact information
 and payoff amount so you can have an accurate record of how much you owe.
 Choose one creditor, possibly a credit card, and focus on paying off that bill.
 Once you have achieved that goal, choose another.  Start with the debt that
 has the highest interest rate since it is the one costing you the most money.

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39. Off-Season

The next time you plan a vacation, consider off-season.  Generally, the prices
 for airfare, hotel, and cars are substantially lower than traveling during peak
 time.  If you look at all your options, you will find that in many cases, you can
come close to the date you would like to travel.  As an example, flying to
 Hawaii through June 8 is considered off-season while June 9 is peak.  One day
 makes a huge difference in price.
 
40.  Buy versus Rent or Lease

When looking at homes or automobiles check the rent and lease options.
 Depending on your particular situation, renting or leasing may be a better
 financial decision.  Weigh all your options and see which choice makes the best
 sense from a financial standpoint.
 
41. Buffet Meals

When taking the family out to dinner, consider restaurants that have buffets.
 In many cases, the prices are outstanding and a parent can share with a small
child.  In addition, many buffets are “all you can eat” and of course, there is
 something for everyone.
 
42. Cable Networking

If you have a computer upstairs and another downstairs and you use high-
 speed data, have one of the computers be the primary computer and the other
 be the backup.  This way, you are only charged once for Internet access and a
 small fee of $10 to $15 a month for the second computer.  This is a great
 bargain!
 
43. Proper Maintenance

Purchase an annual home warranty policy.  These policies can run from $350 to
 $500 a year and offer extremely valuable options.  The way most of these
 policies work is that if you have something break, such as your garage door,
dishwasher, air conditioner, etc., for a minimal fee, usually $50 to $100, a
 service person will come to your home to fix the item.  Best of all, if you have
 five things broken and the same service person is qualified to fix all of them,
you are still charged the $50 to $100 fee once, not five times.  For your
 automobile, you might look into purchasing an extended warranty.  If you ever
 need either one of these policies, they will save you tremendous value.

44.  Company Stock / 401K

Contributing to employee stock options or a 401K plan is a wonderful
 opportunity to save.  Most companies will match your contribution, sometimes
 dollar for dollar, up to a maximum, generally 6%.  From each paycheck, you
can have a small amount of money deducted (1%) and up.  Over time, that
 money grows and since the business is providing a match, you get free money.

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45. Family Haircuts

 Look for hair styling shops that offer family deals or learn how to cut hair
 yourself.  Many families take care of their own haircuts and put the money they
 would have spent aside as a vacation fund.  This system works out perfectly.

46.  Wants versus Needs
 

Make sure the thing you want to spend your money on is a “need” and not a
 “want.”  Sometimes this can seem like a fine gray line but if you stick to the
 need list, you will spend less.
 
47. Refinance

With interest rates being so low, consider refinancing your home and/or
 securing a debt consolidation loan.  You might have to come up with a new
 closing cost but once paid, you will have lower payments, better terms, and
 save thousands of dollars over the years.
 
48. Go Generic

When buying food, try some of the generic items.  Unless you or your guests
 are connoisseurs of fine dining, they will not know if the green beans were
 generic or a top name brand.  Once you add some butter, salt, and pepper, no
 one will know the difference except you - $79 per can versus $33 per can!
People do not realize that many generic brands are actually manufactured by
 name brand companies, just branded with a different name.  In fact, companies
 such as those that make snack foods will have conveyor belts that run side-by-
side –one for the name brand and one for the generic brand.  This is quite
 common and the only difference is the label and price.
 
49. Stock Up

As you shop, if you notice that a brand you and your family use on a consistent
 basis is on sale for a great bargain, stock up.  As an example, if you use a
 particular type of shampoo costing $4.50 per bottle and you find it on sale for
 $2.50, go ahead and buy two bottles.  You should only do this on items you
 know will be used.
 
50.  Shopping for Clothes

There are many secrets relating to saving money on clothing.  As a perfect
 example, rather than buy a matched suit for $450, buy the pieces separate.
This will save you about $100 to $150.  Additionally, buy several pieces that
can be mixed and matched, giving you six outfits out of four pieces.

51. Carpool
In some larger cities, carpooling is required in order to reduce smog.  However,
 regardless of where you live, carpooling can also be a big money saver.  Check

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with co-workers and determine who lives close enough to share a ride.  By the end of the year, you will have saved several hundreds of dollars.
 
52. Trendy Fashion

Most people love to dress in the most up-to-date fashion but for those fashions,
you pay big bucks.  Consider dressing with basics and then emphasis them with
 trendy accessories.  This will save you money on the clothing that is less
expensive while allowing you to dress it up.

53. Free Entertainment

If you are tired of being bored, you will be pleased to learn that there are
 hundreds of things to do that do not cost a dime.  For example, if you want a
 little Friday or Saturday night excitement, sign up at your local police
department for a “ride-a-long” where you can go on duty with an officer as they
 respond to real calls.  Community colleges are always offering free exercise
classes, or coffee shops have poetry readings.  Entertainment and having fun
does not have to cost anything.  Some cities have special areas that are
 popular on the weekends where you can find free concerts.  Check your local
 paper and college to get a list for your area.

54.  Telephone / Mobile Phone

First, shop around for the best deals.  Second, stay away from all the fun bells
 and whistles and just stick with the basic plan.  Some people have turned to
shutting down their home telephone and are now using their mobile phones in
 place.  Since most wireless carriers offer free long-distance, call waiting, call
 forwarding, caller ID, voice mail, and more, it can do the same as a regular
 phone but for less.  Why have two phones when you can have just one?
 
55. Home Remedies

Before rushing off to see the doctor for a sore throat, try some home remedies
or over the counter drugs instead.  For a sore throat, butter mixed with ginger
 and sugar makes a soothing healing pate.  A hot toddy before bed is great for a
cold.  Simply ask your family for their home remedies and try it.  Sometimes a
 simple over the counter medication or herb will do the trick without costing you
an expensive doctor’s office visit.
 
56.  Pay on Time

For every payment you pay late, you are charged a late fee, which can range
 from $25 to $50 or more depending on the company.  Therefore, if you just
made a $50 payment but it was paid late, nothing was paid toward the debt.
 Instead, the entire $50 went toward an unnecessary fee.  To avoid spending
 unnecessary money, be sure you mail your check in time to avoid these fees.
 
57. Insulation

Hundreds of dollars are wasted every year from the average home due to improper insulation.  Make sure there are no drafts coming from your window.

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Sunday, February 6, 2011

Health Insurance



                                                  Health Insurance:  A Primer


                                                     Updated February 3, 2005

                                                      Bernadette Fernandez
                                                   Analyst in Social Legislation
                                                  Domestic Social Policy Division



                                             Health Insurance: A Primer

Summary

People buy insurance to protect themselves against possible financial loss in the future.  Such losses may be due to a motor vehicle collision, natural disaster, or other circumstance.  For patients, financial losses may result from the use of medical services.  Health insurance then provides protection against the possibility of financial loss due to health care use.  In addition, since people do not know ahead of time exactly what their health care expenses will be, paying for health insurance on a regular basis helps smooth out their spending.

While health insurance continues to be mainly a private enterprise in this country, government plays an increasingly significant role.  Especially during the latter half of the 20th
 century, the government both initiated and responded to dynamics in medicine, the economy, and the workplace through legislation and public policies.  For example, the Internal Revenue Service clarified that employer contributions to employee health benefits are exempt from taxation, which encouraged the growth of employment-based health coverage.  Given the frequentintroduction of legislation aimed at modifying or building on the current health insurance system, understanding the potential impact of such proposals requires a working knowledge of how health insurance is designed, provided, purchased, and regulated.  This report, which will be updated, provides basic information about those topics.

Persons and families without health coverage are more likely than those with coverage to forgo needed health care, which often leads to worse health out come sand the need for expensive medical treatment.  Since uninsured persons are more likely to be poor than insured persons, the uninsured are less able to afford the health care they need.  Un insurance can lead to health care access problems for communities, such as overcrowding in emergency rooms.  Furthermore, individual states and the nation as a whole are affected through increased taxes and health care prices to cover uncompensated care expenses.

  Americans obtain health insurance in different settings and through a variety of methods.  People may get health coverage through the private sector, or from apublicly funded program.  Consumers may purchase health insurance on their own,as part of an employee group, or  through a trade or professional association.  A small minority of employees get health insurance at no up-front cost because their employer pays the total insurance premium.  However, 45 million Americans did not have health coverage for the entire year of 2003.

Health insurance benefits are delivered and financed under different systems.The factors that distinguish one delivery system from another are many, in cludinghow health care is financed, how much access to providers and services is controlled,and how much authority the enrollee has to design her/his health plan.  To illustrate,managed care is characterized by predetermined restrictions on accessing services,whereas individual decision-making regarding use of health benefits is a hallmark of consumer-driven health care.  And as economic conditions change, a specificdelivery system may gain or lose the interest of affected parties.

List of Tables

Table 1.  Health Insurance Coverage by Type of Insurance, 2003...........10

       .
                               Health Insurance: A Primer

                                         Introduction
Health insurance coverage dominates many state and federal health care discussions.  As health coverage evolved from an uncommon benefit to a routine one,government’s role in subsidizing and regulating that coverage also changed for workers, employers, and insurers.  Although health insurance continues to be mainlya private enterprise in this country, public entities play an increasingly significant role.
Government’s involvement in health coverage expanded dramatically in the
latter half of the 20th century.  Public policies and legislation initiated or responded to dynamics in medicine, employment, and other areas.
!
          A long-standing rule issued by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS)
         stated that an employer’s contributions to employment-based health
        insurance could not be included in an employee’s gross income for
       tax purposes (Internal Revenue Code, Section 106).  This ruling
       helped spur the growth of employer-sponsored health benefits.  The
      IRS also stated separately that employers could deduct such
      contributions as part of business expenses.
!     Advances in medicine led to escalating consumer demand for newer,
      better treatments.  At the same time the cost of health care increased,
     which was especially problematic for certain groups of care
     consumers who lacked health coverage.  This led to government
     efforts to assist consumers in paying for health care through social
     insurance programs.

     More and more employees began to work for more than one
    employer over their lifetimes.  Government was called on to address
    a problem many workers faced:  keeping health coverage as they
    moved from job to job.

    Given the frequent introduction of legislation aimed at modifying or building
    on the current health insurance system, understanding the potential impact of such proposals requires a working knowledge of how health insurance is designed,
   provided, purchased, and regulated.  This report provides basic information about
   those topics.
                                                            CRS-2
.
                                             What Is Health Insurance?

Basic Definitions and Principles
People buy insurance to protect themselves against possible financial loss in the future.  Such losses may be due to a motor vehicle collision, natural disaster, or other circumstance.  For patients, financial losses may result from the use of medical services.  Health insurance then provides protection against the possibility of financial loss due to health care use.  In addition, since people do not know ahead of time exactly what their health care expenses will be, paying for health insurance on a regular basis helps smooth out their spending.

The concept underlying insurance is “risk;” i.e., the likelihood and magnitude of financial loss.  In any type of insurance arrangement, all parties seek to minimize their own risk.  In health insurance, consumers and insurers approach the management of insurance risk differently.  From the consumer’s point of view, a person (or family) buys health insurance for protection against financial losses resulting from the future use of  medical care.  From the insurer’s point of view, it employs a variety of methods to minimize the risk it takes on when providing health coverage to consumers, so as to assure that it operates a profitable business.  One method is to cover only those expenses arising from a pre-defined set of services(generally called “covered” services).  Another method for limiting risk is to encourage healthier people to obtain health coverage, presumably because health ier people would not need as many medical services as sicker people.

While the methods employed by an insurer differ from those of a consumer,each person or entity has the same goal:  to minimize risk in an uncertain future.  It is this uncertainty of the future and risk of loss which form the context for insurance,and the strategies to make financial loss more predictable and manageable which drive insurance arrangements.

Uneven Distribution of Health Care Expenses.In health care, a
minority of consumers are responsible for a majority of expenses.  According to a study that looked at the distribution of health care spending, 5% of the population accounted for over half of all health expenditures, and 10% of the population accounted for around two-thirds of those expenditures.Such findings were consistent for selected years spanning three decades.  Given the unevenness of health care spending and the impossibility of identifying all of the highest spenders before they use medical services, insurers employ various strategies in order to minimize the risk they take on.


                                                     CRS-3

Risk Pool and Rate Setting.The main objective of insurance is to spread
risk across a group of people.  This objective is achieved in health insurance when
people contribute to a common pool (“risk pool”) an amount at least equal to the
average expected cost resulting from use of covered services by the group as a whole.
In this way, the actual costs of health services used by a few people are spread over
the entire group.  This is the reason why insuring larger groups is considered less
risky — the more persons participating in a risk pool, the less likely that the serious
medical experiences of one or a few persons will result in catastrophic financial loss
for the entire pool.

An insurer calculates and charges a rate (i.e., a “premium”) in order to finance
the health coverage it provides.  The premium generally reflects several factors,
including the expected cost of claims for using services in a year, administrative
expenses associated with running the plan, and a risk or “profit” charge.  The
premium also will vary depending on if it buys self-only coverage or family coverage
(see later discussion).  If the insurer accurately estimates future costs and sets
appropriate premium levels, then claims for that risk pool should be reasonably
predictable over time.  In other words, the premiums paid by healthy persons in the
risk pool help subsidize the costs of less healthy persons.
 
Risk Pool Composition and Adverse Selection.As noted above, one
of the ways insurers attempt to make future costs more predictable is by spreading
the risk of high costs for a few people across many people.  But the number of people
is not the only significant factor.  Equally as important, if not more so, is the
composition of the group

.A consumer’s decision to obtain health coverage is based on a variety of factors,
such as  health status, estimated need for future medical care, and disposable
income.Consumers with different health conditions, as well as varying degrees of comfort towards risk-taking, will differ on whether they consider health insurance necessary.
This is a circumstance that insurers will consider when estimating the cost to cover
future health care use.  With this in mind, insurers generally will vary the premiums
they charge and the health services they cover (subject to state and federal statues)
in order to attract various segments of the population.  This flexibility in rate setting
and benefit determination is particularly important in a competitive insurance market
where insurers try to provide the most attractive rates to increase their market share.However, some risk pools do attract a disproportionate share of unhealthy
individuals.  In part, this is because people generally know more about their own
health conditions than any other person or entity, such as an insurer.  Health care
consumers typically are the best informed about when they will need medical care
and what kind of services they will need.  The “information asymmetry” between
what consumers know compared to what insurers know gives consumers an
advantage when looking for health coverage that will meet their future demand for
health care.  This asymmetry is another source of uncertainty which insurers take
into account when developing and pricing insurance products (or health plans)


                                                CRS-4
.

When a disproportionate share of unhealthy people make up a risk pool, a
phenomenon known as “adverse selection,” the average cost for each person in the
pool rises.  The higher costs may encourage the departure of healthier members from
the group, and discourage the entrance of other healthy people, since healthier people
may be able to find cheaper coverage elsewhere, or decide that coverage is too costly
and become uninsured.  In either situation, it leaves an even less healthy group of
people in the risk pool, which again causes the average cost to rise for the remaining participants.  If there is no change in this dynamic, the group may experience a “death
spiral” as it suffers substantial adverse selection leading to an increasingly expensive
risk pool and possibly dissolution of the pool altogether.  Therefore, despite the
consumer’s information advantage, it does not guarantee access to affordable and
adequate health coverage.

Group Market, Non group Market, and Medical Underwriting.Health
insurance can be provided to groups of people that are drawn together by an employer
or other organization, such as a professional association or trade union.  Such groups
are generally formed for some purpose other than obtaining insurance, like
employment.  When insurance is provided to a group, it is referred to as “group
coverage” or “group insurance.”  In the group insurance market, the entity that
purchases health insurance on behalf of a risk pool is referred to as the “sponsor

.”Consumers who are not associated with a group can obtain health coverage by
purchasing it directly from an insurer in the individual (or nongroup) insurance
market.  Insurance carriers in the nongroup market conduct an exhaustive analysis
of
each
 applicant’s insurability.  An applicant usually must provide the insurer with
an extensive medical history and often undergo a physical exam.  This information is
 used by carriers to assess the potential medical claims for each person by
comparing characteristics of the applicant to the loss experience of others with
similar characteristics.  Once such an evaluation has been conducted, the carrier
decides whether or not to provide health coverage and determines the conditions for
coverage.  This evaluation and determination process is called “underwriting.

”Medical underwriting is standard practice in the individual insurance market,
though a carrier’s ability to reject applicants or vary the terms of coverage are
restricted to some degree by federal and state requirements.  In the group insurance
market, insurers forgo underwriting in the traditional sense; i.e., reviewing each
person’s demographics and medical history.  Instead, an insurer looks at the
characteristics of the collective group — such as its claims history, demographics
(e.g., industry of firm and age distribution of enrollees), and geographic location —
to conduct the insurance risk and loss analysis.  The insurer then charges a premium
based on the analysis of the group’s characteristics.  There are exceptions to this for
very small groups.  For example, when a firm with only a handful of employeesapplies
 for health coverage, the insurer may choose to review the health conditions
of each person in order to establish a premium for the entire group.  Or, the insurer




                                                CRS-5


Fully Insured vs. Self-Insured Plans. A common distinction made
between types of health insurance products is whether they are fully insured or self-
insured.  A fully insured health plan is one in which the sponsor purchases health
coverage from a state-licensed insurer (also referred to as an insurance carrier).  The
carrier assumes the risk of providing covered services to the sponsor’s enrolled
members.  In contrast, organizations who self-insure (or self-fund) do not purchase
health coverage from state-licensed insurers.  Self-insured plans refer to health
coverage that is provided directly by the organization (e.g., employing firm) seeking
coverage for its members (e.g., employees).  Such organizations directly take on the
risk for covering medical expenses, and such plans are not subject to state insurance
regulations.  Thus, a large employer that self-funds employee health benefits acts as
both sponsor and insurer for that coverage.  Firms that self-fund typically contract
with third-party administrators (TPAs) to handle administrative duties such as
member services, premium collection, and utilization review.  TPAs do not
underwrite insurance risk.

Self-only vs. Family Coverage.Another common distinction made in
health insurance is whether the policy covers one person or a family.  Under self
only coverage, the holder of the insurance policy is the only person insured.  (Self-onlycoverage sometimes is referred to as individual coverage.  Individual coverage in this
sense should not be confused with health coverage from the individual insurance
market — see discussion below.)  Family coverage applies to the policyholder,
her/his spouse, and children.Self-only and family policies may differ from each
other in terms of the services they cover and the cost-sharing they impose.

Administrative Expenses.Costs for administrative functions encompass
a wide range of operational activities.  Administrative expenses include costs
associated with contracting with providers, sales and marketing, enrollment and
billing, customer service, utilization review, case management, and other functions.
The estimate of administrative expenses as a percent of claims often is used as a
measure of operational efficiency.  For large firms that self-insure, administrative
costs make up 5-11% of claims, compared with 33-37% for insurers of small firms.
In the non group market, administrative expenses are often higher on a per-person
basis compared to the group market.


                                               CRS-6

Tax Preference

Unlike most industrialized countries, the United States does not guarantee health
coverage to all of its citizens.  Instead, it relies on a patchwork approach that
combines private and public means for providing and accessing health insurance and
health care.  One of the key pieces of this approach encouraged the growth of
employment-based health coverage via the tax code.

Section 106 of the Internal Revenue Code states that employer contributions to
employment-based health insurance are not included in employees’ gross incomes
for tax purposes.  This tax preference encourages workers to sign up for (“take-up”)
health coverage within the work setting.  A separate ruling by the Internal Revenue
Service clarified that such employer contributions are business expenses and,
therefore, deductible from employers’ taxable income.  Both parties benefit:
employers use health insurance coverage as a means to recruit and retain workers,
while employees typically get access to more services at better rates (see discussion
below).  However, employees generally receive reduced wages to compensate for
richer fringe benefits.
The tax exclusion of fringe benefits is one of the primary reason why health
coverage is provided mainly through the workplace in this country.  Approximately
two out of three nonelderly (under 65) Americans have employment-sponsored
insurance (ESI).  Moreover, of nonelderly persons with private health insurance
coverage, approximately nine out of 10 obtain it through the workplace.

Health Insurance Regulation

Regulation occurs at multiple points in the process of providing health coverage.
Health insurance regulation addresses a wide variety of issues: the benefits that must
be offered, the individuals to whom the insurance is made available, and the
responsibilities insurers have to their health plan enrollees are a few of those issues.
The most common distinction (and one of the most contentious areas) in the
regulation of health insurance is whether it is the responsibility of individual states
or the federal government.  This distinction is important because federal and state
laws governing health plans differ on issues such as compensation in courts, access
to care, and mandated coverage for certain benefits.

Responsibility of the States.The regulation of insurance traditionally has
been a state responsibility, as clarified by the 1945 McCarran-Ferguson Act.
However, overlapping federal requirements complicate the matter with respect to
health insurance.  Individual states have established standards and regulations
overseeing the “business of insurance,” including requirements related to the
finances, management, and business practices of an insurer.  For example, all states
have laws that require state-licensed insurance carriers to offer coverage for specified
health care services (known as “mandated benefits”).  Because fully insured plans are
subject to state-established requirements, those plans must offer those mandated
benefits.  On the other hand, self-insured plans are not subject to state insurance
regulations so they are exempt from such requirements.



                                               CRS-7

  Key Federal Statutes. Regardless of whether health plans are fully insured
or self-funded, they all are subject to a number of federal laws (e.g., the Americans
with Disabilities Act).  Two of these federal laws, the Employee Retirement Income
Security Act of 1974 (ERISA, P.L. 93-406) and the Health Insurance Portability and
Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA, P.L. 104-191), have significant impact on how
health insurance is provided

.ERISA outlines minimum federal standards for private-sector employer-
sponsored benefits.  (Public employee benefits and plans sponsored by churches
generally are exempt from ERISA).  Passed in response to pension abuses, the Ac
twas developed with a focus on pensions, but the law applies to a long list of “welfare
benefits” including health insurance.  The Act requires that funds be handled
prudently and in the best interest of beneficiaries, participants be informed of their
rights, and there be adequate disclosure of a plan’s financial activities.  ERISA
preempts state laws for issues that “relate to” employee benefit plans.  (In other
words, the federal law overrides state laws affecting private-sector employee
benefits).  This portion of ERISA was designed to ensure that plans would be subject
to the same benefit laws across all states, partly in consideration of firms that operate
in multiple states.  However, state laws still apply for issues which involve the
“business of insurance.”  Given the ambiguity of the phrases “relate to” and “business
of insurance,” the ERISA preemption is an area of heated debate and active
litigation.

The core motivation behind the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability
Act of 1996 (HIPAA) is to address the concern that insured persons have about
losing their coverage if they switch jobs or change health plans (“portability” of
health coverage).  The Act’s health insurance provisions established federal
requirements on private and public employer-sponsored health plans and insurers.
It ensures the availability and renew ability of coverage for certain employees and
other persons under specified circumstances.  HIPAA limits the amount of time that
coverage for pre-existing medical conditions can be denied, and prohibits
discrimination on the basis of health status-related factors.  The Act also includes tax provisions designed to encourage the expansion of health coverage through several mechanisms, such as a demonstration project for tax-advantaged medical savings
accounts and a graduated increase of the portion of premiums self-employed persons
could deduct from their federal income tax calculations.  Another set of HIPAA
provisions addresses the electronic transmission of health information and the
privacy of personally identifiable medical information (administrative simplification
and privacy provisions, respectively).


                                                CRS-8


                   Why Is Health Insurance Considered Important?

While health insurance coverage is not necessary to obtain health care, it is a
vital mechanism for accessing services in an environment of increasingly expensive
health care.  As health care costs rise — at times outstripping the rise in wages —
more people need greater assistance with covering medical expenses.  Health
insurance provides some measure of protection for consumers, especially those who
have limited means or greater-than-average need for medical care.
Health insurance is considered important also because of the well-documented,
far-reaching consequences of un insurance.  For instance, uninsured persons are more
likely to forgo needed health care than people with health coverage.  This includes
forgoing services for preventable or chronic conditions which often leads to worse
health outcomes.Uninsured persons also are less likely to have a “usual source of
care;” i.e., a person or place identified as the source to which the patient usually goes
for health services or medical advice (not including emergency rooms).  In 2002,
while only one-tenth of all adults with private health insurance identified no usual
source of care, almost half of all uninsured adults had no usual source.Having a
usual source is important because people who establish ongoing relationships with
health care providers or facilities are more likely than persons without a usual source
to access preventive health services and have regular visits with a physician.
Therefore, to the extent that health insurance coverage facilitates access to medical\services, people without coverage face substantial barriers in the pursuit of the health
care they need.

The negative consequences of un insurance extends beyond the persons directly
involved.  The Institute of Medicine found that the insurance status of parents affects
the amount of health care their children receive. In places with crowded emergency
rooms, increasing un insurance rates can add to that problem, since uninsured persons
have fewer places from which they can get general health services outside of
emergency departments (EDs), compared to people with health coverage.
Overcrowding in EDs, in turn, leads to longer waits for all patients seeking
emergency care.  Moreover, many uninsured persons forgo preventive health care and
end up developing more serious conditions requiring complex, expensive medical
services. Since health coverage is positively related to income, uninsured persons are
less likely to be able to afford this level of care.  In cases where patients are unable
to cover the costs associated with receiving health services, the facilities that
provided those services must take it as a financial loss (i.e., uncompensated care).
These losses can be staggering.  For example, one study estimated that health care

Mortgage Insurance

                               Mortgage Insurance

 Mortgage insurance (also known as mortgage guaranty) is an insurance policy

 which compensates lenders or investors for losses due to the default of a

 mortgage loan. Mortgage insurance can be either public or private depending

 upon the insurer. The policy is also known as a mortgage indemnity guarantee

 (MIG), particularly in the UK.

  For example, Mr. Smith decides to purchase a house which costs $150,000. He

 pays 10% ($15,000) down payment and takes out a $135,000 ($150,000-

 $15,000) mortgage. Lenders will often require mortgage insurance for mortgage

 loans which exceed 80% (the typical cut-off) of the property's sale price. Because

 of his limited equity, the lender requires that Mr. Smith pay for mortgage

 insurance that protects the lender against his default. The lender then requires

 the mortgage insurer to provide insurance coverage at, for example, 25% of the

 135,000, or $33,750, leaving the lender with an exposure of $101,250.

 The mortgage insurer will charge a premium for this coverage, which may be paid by

 either the borrower or the lender. If the borrower defaults and the property is sold

 at a loss, the insurer will cover the first $33,750 of losses. Coverages offered by

 mortgage insurers can vary from 20% to 50% and higher.

  To obtain public mortgage insurance from the Federal Housing Administration,

 Mr. Smith must pay a mortgage insurance premium (MIP) equal to 1.75 percent

 of the loan amount at closing. This premium is normally financed by the lender

and paid to FHA on the borrower's behalf. Depending on the loan-to-value ratio,

 there may be a monthly premium as well. The United States Veterans

 Administration also offers insurance on mortgages.
 
Private Mortgage Insurance


 Private mortgage insurance is typically required when down payments are below

 20%. Rates can range from 1.5% to 6% of the principal of the loan per year

 based upon loan factors such as the percent of the loan insured, loan-to-value

 (LTV), fixed or variable, and credit score. The rates may be paid in a single lump

 sum, annually, monthly, or in some combination of the two (split premiums). In

 the U.S., payments by the borrower are tax-deductible until 2010.

  Borrower-Paid Private Mortgage Insurance (BPMI or "Traditional Mortgage

 Insurance") is a default insurance on mortgage loans provided by private

 insurance companies and paid for by borrowers. BPMI allows borrowers to obtain

 a mortgage without having to provide 20% down payment, by covering the lender

 for the added risk of a high loan-to-value (LTV) mortgage. The US Homeowners

 Protection Act of 1998 requires PMI to be canceled when the amount owed

 reaches a certain level, particularly when the loan balance is 78 percent of the

 home's purchase price. Often, BPMI can be cancelled earlier by submitting a new

appraisal showing that the loan balance is less than 80% of the home's value due

 to appreciation (this generally requires two years of on-time payments first).

 Lender-Paid Private Mortgage Insurance (LPMI) similar to BPMI, except that it is

paid for by the lender, and the borrower is often unaware of its existence. LPMI is

 usually a feature of loans that claim not to require Mortgage Insurance for high

 LTV loans. The cost of the premium is built into the interest rate charged on the
 loan.  

Economy Challenges of Pakistan


                                       GROWTH WITH EQUITY: POLICY LESSONS
                                          FROM THE EXPERIENCE OF PAKISTAN


                                            Sayyid Tahir and Salman Syed Ali*

                                                          INTRODUCTION


Analysis of poverty and income inequality has a long tradition in Pakistan.This study breaks some fresh ground in a number of respects.  Following the summary of the economic background in chapter I, a consistent series of poverty estimates from 1963/64 to 1993/94 (14 observations) is developed in order tofacilitate the analysis of poverty trends, together with data on income inequality in chapter II.  Chapter III integrates an analysis of trends in poverty with those of inequality and growth.  A closer look is then taken at the impact of changes in major domestic policies (fiscal, monetary and selected sectoral policies as well as important policy initiatives) on poverty and inequality in chapter IV.  The paper concludes by drawing some policy lessons in chapter V.

                          I.  ECONOMIC CHALLENGES AND
                        MAJOR CHANGES IN THE ECONOMY


                                       A.  Economic growth

The real gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate in Pakistan averaged4.38 per cent during the 25 years from fiscal years 1972/73 to 1997/98.  However,it varied considerably during that period.  After an impressive performance in the1960s, the rate declined to as low as 4.3 per cent between 1969/70 and 1974/75.That was the period during which East Pakistan separated to become Bangladesh,and the policy of nationalization of business units was pursued on a large scale.The average GDP growth rate for the 1970s was 4.8 per cent.

A significant improvement in the GDP growth rate took place during the Zia-ul-Haq regime in 1977-1988.  The growth rate was 6.7 per cent from1979/80 to 1984/85, but it averaged 6.1 per cent over the 1979/80 to 1989/90

*International Institute of Islamic Economics, International Islamic University, Islamabad.


period.  A number of factors contributed to the upturn from the 4.8 per centlevel of the 1970s.  Some of those factors were an improvement in the general law and order situation, a revival of confidence in the government, a decision by the Pakistani regime to support Afghanistan against foreign occupation and an inflow of foreign aid to help the Afghan Mujahideen, and increase dremittances from abroad.  The GDP growth rate fell to 5.7 per cent from 1985/86 to 1989/90.  During that period, Pakistan followed a policy of privatization,which was not so successful in stimulating business and private investment.During the same period, remittances from Pakistani workers in the Middle East declined, which reduced the growth rate of the gross national product (GNP)and may have contributed to the reduction of GDP growth in subsequent periods.

The 1988 to 1996 period was one of political instability.  Four governments assumed office during that time.  Another element of the political turmoil was the rise of ethnic unrest from 1985 onwards in Karachi, the hub of economic activity in Pakistan.  That unrest later escalated to create a serious law and order problem in the city.

The year-to-year GDP growth rates were highly volatile during that period,running from as high as 7.7 per cent in 1991/92 to as low as 2.3 and 1.3per cent in 1992/93 and 1996/97, respectively.  In 1990, Pakistan aga inembarked upon a privatization programme together with the introduction offinancial liberalization policies, this time under structural adjustment packages of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.  The extra ordinarilyhigh GDP growth that took place in 1992/93 was mainly the result of the inflow of foreign capital, both for direct investment as well as for portfolio investment.

The growth rate of per capita GDP averaged 2.5 per cent during the22-year period from 1972 to 1994/95.  Likewise, per capita income showed arising trend (table 1).  In the 1970s, per capita income grew at an average rate of 2.3 per cent.  From 1971/72 to 1974/75, the rate was quite low at 1.2 percent but it increased considerably in the second half (1974/75 to 1979/80) to3.3 percent.  It remained at 3.3 per cent from 1979/80 to 1984/85 but then declined significantly in the last half of the 1980s to 2.4 per cent.  A similar declining trend in the average rate was recorded in the first half of the 1990swhen it averaged 1.3 per cent from 1990/91 to 1994/95.  However, on a year-to-year basis, the growth rates of per capita income showed large variations during the 1990s, ranging from a high of 3.3 per cent in 1991/92 to a low of minus 1 per cent in 1992/93.  During 1997/98 it was estimated to be 2.8 per cent.


                     Table 1.  Real growth rates: 1949/50 to 1997/98
                                          (Percentage)
Period                   GDP  Agriculture Manufacturing Per capita income
1949/50to 1959/60  3.1        1.6           7.7                         0.6
1959/60 to 1969/70 6.8        5.0           9.9                         3.9
1969/70 to 1979/80 4.8        2.3           5.4                         2.3
1969/70 to 1974/75 4.3        0.8           4.6                         1.2
1974/75 to 1979/80 5.3        3.9           6.2                         3.3
1979/80 to 1989/90 6.1        4.0           8.8                         2.4
1979/80 to 1984/85 6.7        3.7           9.5                         3.3
1984/85 to 1989/90 5.7        4.3           6.9                         1.5
1990/91 to 1994/95 4.8        3.5           5.8                         1.3
         1990/91          5.6        5.0           6.3                          0.5
         1991/92          7.7        9.5           8.1                          3.3
         1992/93          2.3      –5.3           5.3                          1.0     
         1993/94          4.5        5.2          5.5                           1.0
         1994/95          5.2        6.6          3.6                           2.8
         1995/96          5.2        5.8          4.8                           1.2
         1996/97          1.3        0.1          1.2                         –1.8
         1997/98          5.4       5.9           7.0                           2.8

Sources: S. M. Naseem, 1996, for data before 1989/90; subsequent data were taken from the Pakistan Economic Survey, various issues.

B.  Composition of economic growth and employment

A structural shift occurred in the economy as evidenced by the changes in the growth rates of income and employment across various sectors, especially agriculture, industry and services.  The GDP growth rate was consistently higher in manufacturing compared with that of the agricultural sector.  But the services sector grew rapidly.  In terms of GDP and employment, the services sector constituted the strongest sector.  This observation is quite surprising, given the fact that the large and rapidly growing services sector is considered to be adeveloped country phenomenon.

Differential growth over the years has contributed to changes in the sector alshares of GDP and employment.  The share of the commodity-producing sector declined from 61.6 per cent in 1969/70 to 50.6 per cent in 1997/98 (table 2).Two major constituents of this sector, agriculture and manufacturing, have shown divergent trends.  The share of agriculture as a percentage of GDP was38.9 per cent in 1969/70, but it declined steadily to about 24 per cent in1997/98.  The share of manufacturing, on the other hand, increased slightly from16 to 17.9 per cent of GDP during the same period.  The services sector, which

                  Table 2.  Sectoral shares in gross domestic product
                                            (Percentage)
Sector                                               1969/70 1985/86 1990/91 1997/98
Commodity producing sectors     61.1       51.0      51.5      50.6
Agriculture                                          38.9       27.3      25.7      24.2
Manufacturing                                   16.0        16.7      17.7      17.9
Electricity and gas distribution           2.0          2.4        3.5        3.9
Others                                                 4.7          4.6        4.6        4.6
Service sector                                  38.4        49.0      48.5      49.4
Trade                                                 13.8        16.2      16.5      16.3
Transport,storage and Communi       6.3          10.0      9.6         9.9
Public administration and defence     6.4          7.4        7.1        6.4
Others                                                11.9        15.4      15.3      16.8

Source:  Pakistan Economic Survey, various issues.

includes trade, transport, communications, public administration and defence,increased considerably from 38.9 per cent of GDP in 1969/70 to 49.4 per centin 1997/98.

Absorption of the labour force into the economy is not complete.  The unemployment rate fluctuated between 0.16 and 2 per cent from 1963/64 to1996/97, with a rising trend in the 1960s, followed by a slight downturn in thefirst half of the 1970s, an upward trend in the mid-1980s, another slight decline in the second half of the 1980s and a rising trend in the 1990s

.Agriculture, which is predominantly rural-based, is the largest absorbing sector for the labour force.  In a rural versus urban comparison, urban un employ-ment is seen to be consistently higher than rural unemployment levels.  For example, in 1996/97, urban unemployment was 4.8 per cent and a difference of about 2 per cent persisted throughout the 1990s.

If the absorption of the labour force is classified by major industrial sectors,a shift can be seen with the pattern of employment moving away from the commodity producing sectors (agriculture and manufacturing) into the services sector during the years following the 1960s (table 3).  Agriculture witnessed adrop in the total share of employment from 65.3 to 59.9 per cent from 1951 to1961 and 46.8 per cent in 1997; however, it was the single largest absorber of  labour.  Manufacturing witnessed an increase in its employment share between1951 (9.8 per cent) and 1970/71 (15.5 per cent); since then, however, it has witnessed a continuous drop, reaching 10 per cent of total employment in 1997.On the other hand, the services sector share of employment consistently increased each year from only 24.9 per cent in 1951 to over 43 per cent in 1997; the sub-categories of the services sector all increased their share of total employment.

     Table 3.  Employment distribution by industry, 1951-1997
                                      (Percentage)
   
                                                        Labour force surveys
Major industry Census  Census
                       1951      1961   1970/71 1974/75 1993  1997
Employed         100.0     100.0    100.0   100.0    100.0 100.0
Agriculture         65.3       59.9     57.6     54.8     48.1   46.8
Manufacturing    9.8        13.7      15.5     12.7     12.0   10.0
Services            24.9       26.3     26.9     30.9     40.0    43.2

Sources: S. M. Naseem, 1996; the 1997 data were taken from the
Pakistan Economic Survey,1996/97.

The greater dependence on the agriculture sub sector and the high year-to-year variability in its share of the employed is an indication of the vulnerability both of the economy and the poor to seasonal and agricultural shocks.  At the same time, rapid growth in the services sector share of employment and its relatively stable share of total GDP in recent years indicates lower marginal productivity as well as the existence of downward pressure on wages in that sector.

C.  Major shifts in economic and social policies

With regard to major shifts in economic and social policies, the follow ingpoints are particularly notable.The 1960s were a period of free market economy with emphasis on industrialization with the government role restricted to infrastructure development.It was also a period of controlled foreign exchange, with relatively less emphasison welfare programmes.  The period ended with the break-up of Pakistan in December 1971.  The 1963/64 to 1971/72 period of our data set corresponds to that period.  The advent of the “green revolution” in agriculture was also an important feature of that era.

The Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto regime from 1972 to 1977 opted for large-scalenation alization in the agricultural, industry and financial sectors, as well as an increase in the general welfare role of the government.  The data period from1971/72 to 1979 in this study encapsulates the effects of the government policies,in addition to the pattern of economic activity during that era.  An important change that took place during that period was the significant inflow of remittances from overseas workers, particularly in the Middle Eastern countries.


The 1980s can be characterized by a review of the policies of the Bhutto regime.  During the martial law period from 1977 to 1985, policy shifts took place that favoured denationalization.  The most significant related events of that period include:

(a)  The involvement of the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(USSR) in Afghanistan from 1979 to 1989, as a result of which liberal economic assistance became available from foreign sources;

(b)The institution of zakat and ushr (see chapter IV), which were established in the early 1980s to provide aid to the needy on a regular footing;

(c)A tremendous boost for the private sector when the policy of denationalization was followed by large-scale privatization in the early1990s under the pretext of the Structural Adjustment Programme (STAP) that was launched in 1986/87.

In the 1990s, reforms introduced under STAP have been pushed further.The emphasis has been markedly on lowering the budgetary deficit through are eduction of public sector activities as well as reforming the economy through progressive decreases in import tariffs, the liberalization of the foreign exchange regime and the opening of the financial sector to foreign banks and insurance companies.  The most recent feature of that approach was the energy policy of the Benazir Bhutto regime, from 1993-1996.  An important initiative on the human resource development side was the start of the Social Action Programme (SAP) in 1992/93 under the sponsorship of international donor agencies.  That programme was aimed at improving the quality of life through access to education, health and other facilities.

                II.  ANALYSIS OF TRENDS
               AND PATTERNS OF EQUITY


                     A.  Absolute poverty

A number of poverty measurement studies have been undertaken in Pakistan.However, they differed in their definition of the poverty line, the time period covered, the level of disaggregation allowed, regional coverage and unit of analysis, either individual or household.

There are three approaches to the definition of the poverty line (see figure).The first approach arbitrarily specifies a monetary amount as the poverty line.An income level can be set, for example, below which 20 per cent of the population falls.